In the early twenty-first century, the international relations literature still posits realism as a dominant paradigm in the Western School. This volume introduces alternative frames of reference that address the deficiencies of liberalism with its lack of sufficient attention to ethnic diversity. By drawing on constructivism with its focus on framing, particularly the influence in instrumentalist terms of narratives shaped by the media, this volume explores that influence by analysing case studies in historical context. In 2020, the world's present, yet unequal, experiences of the triptych, personal data, global pandemic and social protests, lead us to introduce personal data (Image I), the mesh region (Image II) and the distributed ecosystem (Image III) to capture the dynamic, transformative nature of the changing relationship between structure and agency.

The literature that references personal data collection risks is growing amidst international scandals, notably the Cambridge Analytica/Facebook interference in the Brexit referendum and 2016 US Presidential election as well as other elections in countries throughout our world. Questions of fundamental importance to the study and practice of international relations are being asked as concerns are expressed, including the most pressing that speak to accountability, the ethics of use in local areas, and the impact on the vulnerable populations that information and communications technologies (ICTs) promise to serve. Yet, the editors observe that in key texts written to teach international relations, less mention is made of personal data collection risks in countries around the globe. This book addresses this significant omission in the literature. The editors and contributors to this volume consider the limitations of existing theories in international relations to address the present context, as personal data collection risks become more significant in a COVID-19 world.