In 2018, Japan marked the 150th anniversary of the establishment of a new government under Emperor Meiji. This was not simply a transfer of political authority but instead signaled revolutionary transformation in Japan. The impact on Japan of diplomatic, economic, and cultural pressure from the United States and other Western powers from 1853 onward was previously thought to be the immediate catalyst of this "Meiji Revolution." But Japan's modern transformation was rooted in a much deeper process of social and intellectual development that gradually unfolded throughout the latter half of the Tokugawa period. Surveying a diverse group of thinkers spanning the Tokugawa and early Meiji years, this ambitious book liberates modern Japanese history from the stereotypical narrative. In the latter half of the Tokugawa period, Japan faced many possible alternate paths as it gradually advanced toward its encounter with "civilization." This book offers the reader a bird's-eye view of this process of encounter, which provides a fascinating model for the advancement of understanding and coexistence among the world's diverse cultures.